Grammar - Vocabulary, Phonology,Voicing and Aspiration

Rules of grammar
Ogden's rules of grammar for Basic English allow people to use the 850 words to talk about things and events in the normal English way.
1. Words are pluralised by adding an ~s on the end of the word. If there are special ways to make a plural word in English, such as ~es and ~ies, they should be used instead.
2. Words like change, turn, and use are not used as verbs, like "I change," "we will turn right," or "you use." They are used as nouns, like "make a change," "take turns," or "make use of," and so on. (This is the key-idea of Basic English.) The 300 of them may be turned into different forms by adding the ending ~er or ~ing; or into adjectives by adding ~ing and ~ed. Only act is to be turned into actor rather than acter.
3. Some adjectives can be turned into adverbs with the ending ~ly.
4. For comparatives and superlatives, either more and most or ~er and ~est may be used.
5. Some adjectives can be inverted with un~.
6. Yes/no questions are formed by adding do at the beginning or changing the word order.
7. Operators and pronouns conjugate as in normal English.
8. Combined words can be formed from two operators (for example become), from two nouns (for example newspaper or headline) or from a noun and a direction (sundown).
9. Measures, numbers, money, months, days, years, clock time, and international words are in English forms.
10. The wordlist can be augmented by the jargon of an industry or science. For example, regarding grammar, words such as grammar or noun might be used, even though they are not on Ogden's wordlist.
11. The letter [X] is not included as it is thought to be the most difficult letter to pronounce.








Phonology
IPA
Description word
monophthongs

i/iː Close front unrounded vowel
bead
ɪ Near-close near-front unrounded vowel
bid
ɛ Open-mid front unrounded vowel
bed
æ Near-open front unrounded vowel
bad
ɒ Open back rounded vowel
box 1
ɔ/ɑ Open-mid back rounded vowel
pawed 2
ɑ/ɑː Open back unrounded vowel
bra
ʊ Near-close near-back vowel
good
u/uː Close back rounded vowel
booed
ʌ/ɐ/ɘ Open-mid back unrounded vowel, Near-open central vowel
bud
ɝ/ɜː Open-mid central unrounded vowel
bird 3
ə Schwa
Rosa's 4
ɨ Close central unrounded vowel
roses 5
Diphthongs

e(ɪ)/eɪ Close-mid front unrounded vowel
Close front unrounded vowel
bayed 6
o(ʊ)/əʊ Close-mid back rounded vowel
Near-close near-back rounded vowel
bode 6
aɪ Open front unrounded vowel
Near-close near-front unrounded vowel
cry
aʊ Open front unrounded vowel
Near-close near-back rounded vowel
bough
ɔɪ Open-mid back rounded vowel
Close front unrounded vowel
boy
ʊɚ/ʊə Near-close near-back rounded vowel
Schwa
boor 9
ɛɚ/ɛə/eɚ Open-mid front unrounded vowel
Schwa
fair 10
Notes:
It is the vowels that differ most from region to region.
Where symbols appear in pairs, the first corresponds to American English, General American accent; the second corresponds to British English, Received Pronunciation.
1. American English lacks this sound; words with this sound are pronounced with /ɑ/ or /ɔ/. See Lot-cloth split.
2. Some dialects of North American English do not have this vowel. See Cot-caught merger.
3. The North American variation of this sound is a rhotic vowel.
4. Many speakers of North American English do not distinguish between these two unstressed vowels. For them, roses and Rosa's are pronounced the same, and the symbol usually used is schwa /ə/.
5. This sound is often transcribed with /i/ or with /ɪ/.
6. The diphthongs /eɪ/ and /oʊ/ are monophthongal for many General American speakers, as /eː/ and /oː/.
7. The letter can represent either /u/ or the iotated vowel /ju/. In BRP, if this iotated vowel /ju/ occurs after /t/, /d/, /s/ or /z/, it often triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant, turning it to /ʨ/, /ʥ/, /ɕ/ and /ʑ/ respectively, as in tune, during, sugar, and azure. In American English, palatalization does not generally happen unless the /ju/ is followed by r, with the result that /(t, d,s, z)jur/ turn to /tʃɚ/, /dʒɚ/, /ʃɚ/ and /ʒɚ/ respectively, as in nature, verdure, sure, and treasure.
8. Vowel length plays a phonetic role in the majority of English dialects, and is said to be phonemic in a few dialects, such as Australian English and New Zealand English. In certain dialects of the modern English language, for instance General American, there is allophonic vowel length: vowel phonemes are realized as long vowel allophones before voiced consonant phonemes in the coda of a syllable. Before the Great Vowel Shift, vowel length was phonemically contrastive.
9. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, this sound may be, instead of /ʊə/, /ɔ:/. See English-language vowel changes before historic r.
10. This sound only occurs in non-rhotic accents. In some accents, the schwa offglide of /ɛə/ may be dropped, monophthising and lengthening the sound to /ɛ:/.

Consonants
This is the English consonantal system using symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Bilabial
Labio-
dental
Dental
Alveolar
Post-
alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Labial-
velar
Glottal

Nasal
m n ŋ 1
Plosive
p b t d k ɡ
Affricate
tʃ dʒ 4
Fricative
f v θ ð 3 s z ʃ ʒ 4 ç 5 x 6 h
Flap
ɾ 2
Approximant
ɹ 4 j ʍ w 7
Lateral
l
1. The velar nasal [ŋ] is a non-phonemic allophone of /n/ in some northerly British accents, appearing only before /k/ and /g/. In all other dialects it is a separate phoneme, although it only occurs in syllable codas.
2. The alveolar tap [ɾ] is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in North American English and Australian English.[35] This is the sound of tt or dd in the words latter and ladder, which are homophones for many speakers of North American English. In some accents such as Scottish English and Indian English it replaces /ɹ/. This is the same sound represented by single r in most varieties of Spanish.
3. In some dialects, such as Cockney, the interdentals /θ/ and /ð/ are usually merged with /f/ and /v/, and in others, like African American Vernacular English, /ð/ is merged with dental /d/. In some Irish varieties, /θ/ and /ð/ become the corresponding dental plosives, which then contrast with the usual alveolar plosives.
4. The sounds /ʃ/, /ʒ/, and /ɹ/ are labialised in some dialects. Labialisation is never contrastive in initial position and therefore is sometimes not transcribed. Most speakers of General American realize (always rhoticized) as the retroflex approximant /ɻ/, whereas the same is realized in Scottish English, etc. as the alveolar trill.
5. The voiceless palatal fricative /ç/ is in most accents just an allophone of /h/ before /j/; for instance human /çjuːmən/. However, in some accents (see this), the /j/ is dropped, but the initial consonant is the same.
6. The voiceless velar fricative /x/ is used by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as loch /lɒx/ or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like Bach /bax/ or Chanukah /xanuka/. /x/ is also used in South African English. In some dialects such as Scouse (Liverpool) either [x] or the affricate [kx] may be used as an allophone of /k/ in words such as docker [dɒkxə]. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.
7. Voiceless w [ʍ] is found in Scottish and Irish English, as well as in some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English. In most other dialects it is merged with /w/, in some dialects of Scots it is merged with /f/.
Voicing and aspiration
Voicing and aspiration of stop consonants in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:
• Voiceless plosives and affricates (/ p/, / t/, / k/, and / tʃ/) are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable — compare pin [pʰɪn] and spin [spɪn], crap [kʰɹ̥æp] and scrap [skɹæp].
o In some dialects, aspiration extends to unstressed syllables as well.
o In other dialects, such as Indian English, all voiceless stops remain unaspirated.
• Word-initial voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects.
• Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of American English) — examples: tap [tʰæp̚], sack [sæk̚].
• Word-terminal voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects (e.g. some varieties of American English) — examples: sad [sæd̥], bag [bæɡ̊]. In other dialects they are fully voiced in final position, but only partially voiced in initial position.
Supra-segmental features
Tone groups
English is an intonation language. This means that the pitch of the voice is used syntactically, for example, to convey surprise and irony, or to change a statement into a question.
In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called tone groups, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups. Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds. For example:
- /duː juː niːd ˈɛnɪˌθɪŋ/ Do you need anything?
- /aɪ dəʊnt | nəʊ/ I don't, no
- /aɪ dəʊnt nəʊ/ I don't know (contracted to, for example, - /aɪ dəʊnəʊ/ or /aɪ dənəʊ/ I dunno in fast or colloquial speech that de-emphasises the pause between don't and know even further)
Characteristics of intonation
English is a strongly stressed language, in that certain syllables, both within words and within phrases, get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be accentuated/stressed and the latter are unaccentuated/unstressed. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( ˈ ) sign either before (as in IPA, Oxford English Dictionary, or Merriam-Webster dictionaries) or after (as in many other dictionaries) the syllable where the stress accent falls.
Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example:
That | was | the | best | thing | you | could | have | done!
Here, all syllables are unstressed, except the syllables/words best and done, which are stressed. Best is stressed harder and, therefore, is the nuclear syllable.
The nuclear syllable carries the main point the speaker wishes to make. For example:
John had not stolen that money. (... Someone else had.)
John had not stolen that money. (... You said he had. or ... Not at that time, but later he did.)
John had not stolen that money. (... He acquired the money by some other means.)
John had not stolen that money. (... He had stolen some other money.)
John had not stolen that money. (... He stole something else.)
Also
I did not tell her that. (... Someone else told her)
I did not tell her that. (... You said I did. or ... but now I will)
I did not tell her that. (... I did not say it; she could have inferred it, etc)
I did not tell her that. (... I told someone else)
I did not tell her that. (... I told her something else)
This can also be used to express emotion:
Oh really? (...I did not know that)
Oh really? (...I disbelieve you. or ... That's blatantly obvious)
The nuclear syllable is spoken more loudly than the others and has a characteristic change of pitch. The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the rising pitch and the falling pitch, although the fall-rising pitch and/or the rise-falling pitch are sometimes used. In this opposition between falling and rising pitch, which plays a larger role in English than in most other languages, falling pitch conveys certainty and rising pitch uncertainty. This can have a crucial impact on meaning, specifically in relation to polarity, the positive–negative opposition; thus, falling pitch means "polarity known", while rising pitch means "polarity unknown". This underlies the rising pitch of yes/no questions. For example:
When do you want to be paid?
Now? (Rising pitch. In this case, it denotes a question: "Can I be paid now?" or "Do you desire to pay now?")
Now. (Falling pitch. In this case, it denotes a statement: "I choose to be paid now.")

New Trends in Asian and African Literature

Shaik Shaheen Taj
Assistant Professor
Nimra Institute of Science and Technology
Nimra Nagar, Vijayawada

The Dialectic of Historical Struggle in Silko’s
Almanac of the Dead

History, in other words, is not a calculating machine.
it unfolds in the mind and the imagination, and it takes body
in the multifarious responses of a people’s culture, itself the
infinitely subtle mediation of material realities, of under-
pinning economic fact, of gritty objectivities.
(Quoted in, Edward W.Said’s, Culture and Imperialism, 1993: I).

People from Indian ancestry who are citizens of the United States are known as Indian Americans. Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 merged them with the American mainstream giving them United States Citizenship. This was because of the heroic service of many American Indian veterans in World War I. throughout the period of Indian displacement and Indian wars, Americans pondered Indian origins. Benjamin Smith Barton, in New Views of the Origins of the Tribes and Nations of America (1797) asserted that the Indians had originated in Persia and other parts of Asia. American Indian literature begins with the orally transmitted myths, legends, tales, and lyrics of Indian cultures. Among the richest set of Native American stories that survive are creation myths, descriptions of the beginnings of the universe and the world and of the origin of humankind. The earliest works of Indian literature are traditional oral tales, songs, and myths. They are found transcribed into English in anthologies such as American Indian Myths and Legends but are best understood in the specific cultural contexts where they were sung or enacted dramatically. A second early form of Indian literature is the captivity narrative, the best of which reveal much about Indian cultures before extensive contact with whites. In such narrative we have traditional Indian cultures before extensive contact with whites. In such narrative we have traditional Indian cultures and their relationships to the land. Autobiography has continued to be important in Indian literature, though the novel is currently the dominant literary form. Contemporary Native American authors and critics are retelling, reorganizing, and re-evaluating traditional tribal stories in order to assert a communally ascribed identity that accurately portrays today’s Indian. These new stories seek to breakdown the signs and artifacts of the white man’s Indian and replace them with signs of a vibrant and thriving culture. Contemporary, Native American texts rewrite Native American histories in order to reenter or empower their culture.

Leslie Marmon Silko is one of the foremost authors to emerge from the Native American literary renaissance of the 1970s. She blends Western Laguna Pueblo heritage to communicate Native American concepts concerning time, nature, and spirituality and their relevance in the contemporary world. Silko, born is 1948 in Albuquerque; New Mexico belongs to Laguna Indian, Mexican and Anglo American heritage. Her first novel Ceremony tells the story of a group of Indian World War II veterans in a way that both describes them and also expresses their own views of their situations. Her second novel of 763 pages, Almanac of the Dead, explores and critiques interlocking histories of oppression that inscribe the land, labor, and bodies of indigenous peoples. It recovers and recreates the submerged knowledge of oppressed peoples while affirming and strengthening vital, social, ecological and spiritual relationships. It depicts a detailed description of Native American traditional history. It includes the themes like Colonialism, Disease and Health, Human Worth, Institutionalization, Medical Ethics, Natural Experience, Native-American Medicine, Nature, Power Relations, Racism, Society, Survival, and War and Medicine. Silko portrays some 70 characters, most at various stages of corruption, disease and additionally a wide array of events spanning 500 years. The novel is peopled with addicts, alcoholics, politicians, unscrupulous and greedy land speculators, and a host of other unsavory characters. These characters tell the story of resistance to Euro-American oppression and a growing effort of indigene allies to retake the land and ultimately to become agents of it’s healing.

The title of the novel refers to a set of notebooks of Yoeme, a Yaqui Indian. She is the care taker of the “Almanac”. She later passes it on to her grandchildren, Zeta and Lecha. The novel begins with these elderly Native American twin sisters in Tucson. A section of the “Almanac” is accidentally lost. Yoeme wants Zeta to write down a replacement section. She warns Zeta to be very careful while replacing because nothing is supposed to be added newly to the novel. Zeta and Lecha are compiling the almanac, the pages of which are made from horse stomachs. Almanac tells the history of the Indians in their movement north from Mexico. Yoeme believes that she is the caretaker of the “Almanac”. Lecha says that the old almanacs tell not just when to plant or harvest, but also they tell about the days yet to come such as drought or flood, plague, Civil War or invasion. Yoeme and others believed that the power of the “Almanac” will bring all the tribal people of the America together to retain the land. The almanac is a document full of prophesies that foretell the European conquests of the indigenous peoples of Mexico and the American Southwest. Through it, Silko indicts the Europeans for their hundreds of years of crimes. The prophesy also tells a future in which the domination ends. Silko makes clear and undeniable links between past activities and present socio-political problems in the United States. By populating her text with ‘the dead’, Silko exposes the moral and political significance of memory, and the narrativity of history (Silko, 1991:424).

Almanac of the Dead takes place against the backdrop of the American Southwest and Central America. It follows the stories of dozens of major characters in somewhat non-linear narrative format. Much of the story takes place in the present day although lengthy flashbacks and occasional mythological story telling are also woven into the plot. The novel’s numerous characters are often separated by both time and place, and many seemingly have little to do with one another at first. A majority of these characters are involved in criminal or revolutionary organizations. We find arms dealers, drug kingpins, an elite assassin, communist revolutionaries, corrupt politicians and a black market organ dealer. Driving many of these individual storylines we have a general theme of total reclamation of Native American lands. This novel depicts the exploitation of both dead and living. It is concerned with the repercussions on modern America of the continuing and conscious repression of the voices of the past. It depicts violence, destruction and dehumanization. Apart from these themes, a relentless critique of the corruption in Anglo-European culture revolving around money, power, sexuality, and a phallocentric order are presented.

Many of Silko’s powerful and wealthy characters ill-treat their own people as lazy and destructive thieves. By doing so, they reject their own indigenous roots. They consider monitoring and controlling inferior people as their personal responsibility. For example, General J, part of a powerful Mexican cadre, is a powerful character who proposes to his friends that illegal refugees be “gunned down from the air like coyotes or wolves”
(Silko, Almanac of the Dead.1991:495). We find many such villainous characters in Almanac. The rejection from lovers, strangers, and everyday events, the extreme, even criminal, reactions that almost inevitably follow on the part of the disabled character are rightly attributed to deviate psychology. Trigs is one such character who embodies this psychology by being so obsessed with recording his own history that he becomes unable to substantively relate to the people around him. His journals focus single mindedly upon sexual exploits and failures. Actually he attributes all of these things to his disability. Silko has created this character as half a man. He is not the only disabled stereotype portrayed by Silko. Like Triggs we find two more characters Serlo and Beaufry. Beaufrey treats ordinary people as disposable pawns in his personal game of chess. Thriving on power and profit, Beaufrey produces and sells movies featuring real-life murders, fetal dissections, surgical fantasies, and ritual circumcision. For his amusement, he uses money, drugs, and social influence to entice and manipulate the people around him.

We have an important character Bartolomeo, a communist working with Indians in the mountains. He is trying to educate the Indians masses on communism. Angelita is ths best student. She knows that communism does not hold the secrets for Indians. The communists rewrite history and do not want the Indians to remember their own uprisings their own resistance. We have an African American character, Clinton whose messages would be a call to war. Clinton and his family are direct descendants of wealthy, slave owing Cherokee Indians. He believes that the spirits of their ancestors were still with them in the United States. He feels that when there was a Civil War the old spirits drank up the rivers of white man’s blood while the slaves ran free. Max Blue is one more murderous and powerful character created by Silko.

Silko’s characters remember the past, physically piecing together individual recollections to produce a more rounded and complete history that recognizes all those who have been denied and excluded. Silko suggests that the policies of remembering relate not merely to a re-visioning of the past but also to contemporary activism: to the desire and ability of the minority group to take control of, and to actively change, the future. Silko in addition to all these also exposes the influential economic, political and social roles traditionally played by women in Native American societies. Seen by Europeans as a threat to the tribal negotiations necessary for successful settlement, these powerful traditional female roles were undermined as quickly as possible as Euro-Americans established and imposed a tribal system that only recognized and , more strategically, only negotiated with male authority figures.

Silko also exposes the influential economic, political and social roles traditionally played by women in many Native American societies. Silko, in the opening lines of the text describes a seemingly innocuous domestic scene: a kitchen where an 'old woman stands at the stove stirring…simmering brown liquid' (Silko, 1991:19). This instantly recognizable and comfortable image of nurturing and nourishment is immediately exploded as the subsequent lines reveal that the old woman, Zeta, is in fact dyeing clothing to 'the color of old blood' for use in her business of gun and drug running, while her nephew Ferro is cleaning his arsenal of weapons at the kitchen table and her equally elderly twin Lecha is being helped by her 'nurse' to inject illegal drugs. The kitchen itself, we find is situated within a fortified ranch, protected by vicious guard dogs and isolated from community of any kind in the middle of the Tucson desert (Silko, 1991:19).
Male characters such as Beaufrey, Serlo, Max Blue, Batolomeo, and a whole variety of authoritative figures from the Mexican and US armies, Police, and judiciaries are highlighted in the text. At the same time great emphasis is nonetheless placed upon some very powerful female figures: for instance, the Euro Americans Leah Blue, who ruthlessly seduces influential men to further her own business ambitions, and Seese, who has the strength to survive drug abuse and the abduction and murder of her infant son; and the indigenous women Angelita La Escapia, and the Yaqui twins Lecha and Zeta, who prove themselves to be powerful forces for political and social change. All three indigenous histories, and Lecha and Zeta inherit their roles as keepers of the almanac through a long line of female guardians from their grandmother Yoeme. All three thus emphasize the links between memory, history, identity and education, and cultural roles traditionally undertaken by women in indigenous societies.

Mexican revolutionary, Angelita locates the dead within an active and present history. We simply wait for the earth’s natural forces already set losse, the exploding fierce energy of all the dead slaves and dead ancestors haunting the Americans…we wait for the tidal wave of history to sweep as along (Silko, 1991:518). Silko’s likening of the force of history to ‘the earth’s natural forces’. The comparison of history and nature is particularly evident in the highly visible and immediate interaction between past and present that the Yaqui smuggler Calabazas perceives in the very geography, or physical landscape, of the Americas: Right Now. Today I have seen it. Where the arroyo curves sharp, caught, washed up against the big boulders with broken branches and weeds. Human bones piled high. Skulls piled and stacked like melons (Silko, 1991: 216). Here history is clearly inscribed upon the land itself, and upon the bodies of the dead. In discussing the indigenous ‘People’s Army’ led by the Mayan revolutionary Angelita La Escapia, Silko emphasizes the Mayan belief in the living nature of remembrance, and of history, regardless of the passing of time: Generation after generation, individuals were born, then after eighty years, disappeared into dust, but in the stories, the people lived on in the imaginations and hearts of their descendants’. Whenever their stories were told, the spirits of the ancestors were presented their power was alive (Silko, 1991:520). Thus we see that memory transforms itself into history, which in turn ensures a perception of the continued and continual nature of the living dead. Angelita clearly recognizes the political of history: ‘History was the Sacred text. The most complete history was the most powerful force’ (Silko, 1991:316).
Menardo’s desperate need to distance himself from his indigenous origins, despite his childhood love of his grandfather’s histories is clearly depicted. Menardo claims his characteristically tribal ‘flat nose’ to be the result of a courageous boxing career, his marriage to Iliana is influenced by her family’s social status as direct descendants of the conquistador Gutierrez (Silko, 1991:260). The figure of Menardo illustrates his increasing distance-physical, social, political, emotional, and spiritual from his origins.
The more Menardo mixes with the oppressive cultures that are traced in the Euro-American worlds of the text, the more he becomes involved with, and thus implicated in state programs of abduction, torture, and murder. It is significant that Menardo becomes fixated with the power of the gift that will eventually destroy him: the bullet-proof vest presented to him by his Mafia associates from the US. In his fixed belief in the power of the vest, which is based entirely upon its technological merits, Menardo ironically emulates Euro-American beliefs-what Wilson Weasel Tail would interpret as cultural mistranslations-regarding the spirit shirts of the Ghost Dance. Persuading his Indian chauffeur Tach to shoot him to prove the vest’s power, Menardo invited his own death. Menardo dies not just because he denies his origins and identity, but because he embraces and emulates the ‘death culture’ of Euro-Americ that considers itself ‘invincible with the magic of high technology (Silko, 1991:503). Menardo quite literally dies because he rejects the power, and thus the protection, of the ancestral spirits at the heart or the idea of the spirit shirt/bulletproof vest; technology alone is not enough.
Roof is also a complex character created by Silko. He is born into a ‘white’ American family whose wealth derives from Indian wars of the Southwest and whose social status depends upon concealment of their mixed race. Irreparably brain damaged in a near fatal motorcycle accident, Root is both rejected by-and himself rejects- his comfortable history. Instead, Root chooses to embrace his mixed heritage by living and working with the Yaqui smuggler Calabazas. It is significant that Root decides to reject Euro-American values after he has been deemed disabled-‘damaged’- by Euro-American medicine. Inspite of his financial and social success, in choosing to forget, Menardo dies; inspite of his irreparable disability, in choosing to remember Root lives. Root’s survival underlines the significance of his name: embracing his genealogical and familial origins, Root lives because he chooses not to erase his identity, in her complicated analysis of the characters of Root and Menardo, Silko, illustrates the danger of willful forgetfulness, and the political power of remembrance. In actively remembering the past and those who have died, and that justice continues to be demanded for those who have died unjustly.
Thus we see the longest of Silko’s works, Almanac of the Dead represents the culmination of years of research, thought, and other efforts connected to the issue of justice for indigenous people. Throughout a long seires of characters that show moral and spiritual salvation social redemption. As she makes clear the horrors of society, she forces the reader to pass moral judgment, even if this means passing judgment of the self. Often bluntly, the novel defines and presents a choice, on the social and spiritual levels, between creation and destruction. Most significant of all, Silko – along with many other contemporary Native writers – actively demands not just a future, but also the control of that future. In the context of the development of the literary canon in the US, it is a clear challenge to exclusion and marginalization. In this sense, Silko concurs with Carlos Fuentes’ succinct comment on the active and activist nature of history. The knowledge of the ‘past is thus …the possibility of shaping an imperfect but reasonable future. If we understand that we made the past, we will not permit the future to be made without us or against us (Fuentes, 1986:346).

Works Cited

1. Coltelli, L. (1992–3) 'Almanac of the Dead: an Interview with Leslie Marmon Silko' Native American Literature, Pisa, Italy, 65–80.
2. Fuentes, C. (Fall 1985 Winter 1986) 'Remember the Future' Salmagundi, Vol. 68–9: 333–352.
3. Silko, L.M. (1991) Almanac of the Dead, New York: Penguin.
4. Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Knopf, 1993.
5. -----. Orientalism. New York: Penguin, 1995.
6. Feminist Review (2007) 85, 1–7.http://www.palgrav journals.com/fr/journal/v85/n1/full/9400315a.html
7. Michelle, Jarman. “Exploring the world of the different in Leslie Silkos Almanac of the Dead.” Melus, 2006.
8. Coltelli, Laura. "Almanac of the Dead: An Interview with Leslie Marmon Silko." Arnold 119-34.
9. Krupat, Arnold. Etnocriticism:Etnography, history, History, Literature. Berkeley: U of California P, 1992.
10. Lincoln, Kenneth. Native American Renaissance. Berkeley: U of California P, 1983.
11. Olmsted, Jane. “The Uses of Blood in Leslie Marmons Silko’s Almanac of the Dead”. CL.vol 40:3, Fall 1999, 464-489.

Do's and dont's in Interview

Top 20 Interview Dos and Don'ts
Good Luck
1. Remain relaxed and friendly with the person who is taking you on the guided tour.
2. Interpret all the interviewers' body language according to generally held beliefs eg folded arms and legs are signs of a closed attitude.
3. Practice out loud the answers to questions that you have anticipated.
4. Do all your company research when you arrive early for your interview.
5. It is important to convince them right at the beginning of your technical skills by using complex terminology and detailed examples.
6. In salary negotiations, try to ensure the interviewer is the first to come up with a specific sum of money.
7. Wear something safe (traditional).
8. Look confident when entering the interview room by walking in with a big smile, shaking hands and sitting straight down in the chair.
9. Ask questions during and at the end of the interview.
10. Be honest with the interviewer.
11. React to hostile interviewers in a similar style.
12. Forget about the interview as soon as you leave the premises.
13. Review the contents of your CV while waiting in the reception area.
14. Try to avoid answering questions about your weaknesses by deliberately misinterpreting the interviewers' questions.
15. Ask when a decision will be made regarding the appointment.
16. Help the unskilled interviewer by expanding on the closed ('yes' and 'no' response type) questions.
17. When attending an assessment centre try to be the leader of all the group activities.
18. When responding to an interview question from one member of an interview panel, include other panel members in the response.
19. Reject a job offer made during the interview.
20. Follow up negative responses to questions with positive examples and learning points.

Honest Resume

The Ultra-Honest Resume

How to Write a Resume That Passes the Verification Test

By Margaret Steen
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When it comes to resumes, most job seekers know that honesty is the best policy. Never say you graduated from college when you didn't or make a job last a year longer than it really did. But the verification process many employers use for resumes can trip up even workers who aren't trying to fool anyone. All it takes is a little carelessness, a poor memory of what happened eight years ago, or the acquisition of a former employer to turn a resume into a liability.

Many companies hire outside background checkers to verify resumes and job applications. These companies note every inconsistency and piece of information they can't confirm -- even the difference between starting a job on April 1 and April 5 -- although some problems are treated more seriously than others by employers.

"We don't make recommendations about whether to hire or not hire," says Glenn Hammer, founder of A Matter of Fact, which does pre-employment background checks in Northern California. "We'll let the employer decide."

Hammer and other experts offer tips to creating a resume that won't raise red flags -- issues that could slow down the offer process or even, in an extreme case, scuttle a potential offer:

# If you're not sure, don't guess. If you can't remember for certain when you left a position, call the company and ask. The same goes for your salary history, which generally doesn't go on a resume but you might be asked for on an application.

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"We see a great deal of discrepancy where somebody puts down that they left a job in June and the employer has that they left their job in March," says Barry Nadell, president of InfoLink Screening Services, a Kroll Company. Some of those people may be lying to cover up a gap in their employment history, but Nadell says others simply weren't sure and wrote down their best guess.

# Provide extra information if the company's situation has changed. If a previous employer was bought by another company, it could make it harder for a background checker to verify your employment (although background checkers do have access to databases that sometimes contain this information). Clarify the situation in a short note on your resume: Note the new owner in parentheses after the listing.

# Be careful with titles and temp work. At some companies, employees use a title on their business cards, for example, that is different from the one on file with human resources. An HR job title might be "senior marketing manager," Hammer says. "That's not particularly helpful to an employer. In fact what they called you in the company was 'marketing manager for electric grid suppliers.'"

If the title your HR department uses for your position is very different from the job title normally applied to a particular job, it may help to list both titles on your resume or job application.

Also, if you worked at a well-known company through a temporary agency, make sure you note on your resume and application that you were employed by the agency. The well-known company will likely have no record of your employment.

# Don't obsess over it. If, despite your best efforts, the background checkers can't confirm one of your past jobs, it may not be a problem. At Nadell's firm, more than one-third of past employment verifications turn up something that can't be confirmed. This doesn't mean you'll automatically be turned down for the job.

"If I get a background check that says, 'We couldn't verify employment at five of these places,' I'm going to say to the guy, 'Look, I need more information,'" says Richard Martinez, a management consultant who is currently acting vice president of human resources at NanoAmp Solutions in Milpitas, California. "But if they had 10 jobs in the last 30 years, and we can't verify one that they had 25 years ago, I'm not that concerned about it."

Should You Use a Resume Writing Service?

Yahoo! HotJobs Exclusive

By Caroline Levchuck
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When you spend as much time as we do researching resumes, you begin to see just how important a good one really is.

Consider:

* The majority of recruiters spend less than three minutes reviewing a resume, according to a survey conducted by a major human resources association.


* Simple typos or grammatical errors can automatically disqualify a resume from consideration.


* Many companies receive hundreds of thousands of resumes a year, making it even more difficult for yours to stand out.

These are just some of the reasons job seekers turn to professional resume writing services.

Here are some thoughts on how to get the best result when working with a resume writing service.
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They're Resume Writers, Not Miracle Workers

Been out of work for a while? A resume writing service can help smooth gaps on your resume.

Looking to change careers? A resume writing service can help translate your current skills to another industry.

Been out of the job market for an extended time? A resume writing service can make certain your resume looks and feels contemporary.

But be realistic in your expectations. Resume writers cannot create experience or expertise where there is none. And not all resume writers are career experts, so they may not be the best resource to get advice on broader career issues.

The Pros of Using a Pro

If you have a tight budget or fancy yourself a wordsmith, you may be hesitant to use a professional resume writer. But consider the benefits.

Professional resume writers write resumes. Every day.

You do it far less often. Or rarely. Or never.

Think about this when considering hiring a professional:

* A good resume writer knows what recruiters want -- and don't want -- to see in a resume.


* A professional resume writer, particularly one who specializes in your industry or experience level, will know (and include) keywords that will help recruiters find your resume when searching online.


* Most services guarantee an easy-to-read, error-free resume.

Some job seekers find that the peace of mind they get from a professionally prepared resume is worth the cost, which can range from $50 to $1,000.

Nobody's Perfect

Again, professional resume writers write resumes. Every day.

But, sometimes, that can be a "disadvantage."

When choosing a service, be wary of these common pitfalls:

* Make sure the resume writer delivers not just form but substance. Some professionally written resumes contain canned or clichéd language that show you've used a service and not a very good one at that.


* Make sure the resume writer conducts a thorough, detailed interview with you. Send any back-up material you think they need, even if they don't request it.


* If possible, work with a resume writer who specializes in your industry or experience level.


* Ask in advance what your final resume will look like. Avoid services that offer cookie-cutter formats.

Buyer Beware

Before you hire a professional resume writer, take a look at THEIR resume.

Select a reputable company with a proven track record, such as ResumeEdge (http://hotjobs.resumeedge.com). Or look for someone who is a member of a professional resume writers association, such as the Professional Association of Resume Writers and Career Coaches.

Finally, agree on a price and delivery date and get them in writing.

Confirm that you'll receive your resume in electronic format so you can print your own copies at will. And, of course, read it over yourself to be certain it's perfect before sending it out.

If chosen carefully, a professional resume writer can give you the resume you need to get the job you want.

Tips for effective resume

The Resume That Stays in Play

Three Rules for an Attention-Grabbing Resume

By Joe Turner
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Sometimes your resume can hurt you more than help you. In today's job-search market, you are often competing against large numbers of candidates, and your resume has to be good enough to make it past the first screening.

The first people to view your resume are often lower-level staff looking for a quick way to weed candidates out of consideration. You can minimize the chances of your resume being eliminated during this round by following three simple rules.
1. Less is more.

Don't tell too much. Your resume should read like a billboard, not an encyclopedia. A good resume should leave the prospective employer with a desire to know more. They will be likely to call and phone-screen you. So don't fill in all the details just yet. Save that for the interview. Do, however, paint a big picture of who you are and what you can offer.

For example, you may have worked for several years at your present employer. Certainly you could fill up several paragraphs with all that you've done. Instead, think of the one or two most critical projects, duties, or functions that you provide. List the most important and give them no more than a sentence or two each.
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Here is an example:
EXPERIENCE:
May 2003 to Present: XYZ Company, Their City, CA
Senior staff design engineer.
Products designed/Projects involved: A, B, C.
Description of most important project and results.

Description of second most important project and results.

Skip the hobbies and personal information. Avoid mind-numbing detail that will cause a reader's eyes to glaze over. One page is ideal -- two pages only if you are a 15- to 20-year veteran with a significant growth and promotion history.

2. Use more keywords.

You want the search engines to flag your resume for closer examination. Do this by including several keywords that are relevant to your job and your job skills, as well as specific industry words that may be appropriate. Also, include the names of major companies you worked with or for, as this often is important to employers. Include those in the "experience" section, as appropriate.

Here are some examples of keywords: International Standards (ISO), Flash, MBA, copy edit, CPMs, medical device, Dreamweaver, and search engine marketing (SEM).

Some candidates add a separate "keywords" section at the bottom of digital-format resumes, or others list keywords as part of a "skills" section. These are possible catch-all areas specifically for the search engines to recognize.

3. Be specific.
Don't just tell them what you did. Move beyond that and tell the benefit of your accomplishment. A good way to do this is to include several specific ways you helped your employer make money or save money. Identify measurable results; use numbers. Remember, the only benefit you can bring to the table is past performance. When you interview (either phone or in person) this is what will be discussed.

Think of all your jobs in the past and bring forth examples of some of your best work. How can an employer think of you as a problem solver? If at all possible, try to "monetize" your accomplishments (state them in terms of money). At the interview, you will be prepared to enlarge upon these successes.

objectives of a resume

Effective Resumes: An 'Objective' Debate

Yahoo! HotJobs Exclusive

By Erin Hovanec
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Are you for job objectives or against them?

Most job seekers -- and even career experts -- have strong opinions.

Those in favor say objectives are the simplest, quickest way to target a specific position. Those against charge that objectives waste valuable space and limit you to just one position when you might be qualified for others.

Whether you are pro- or anti-objective, here are tips for writing a resume that will grab recruiters' attention from the get-go.

Putting Your Goal on Paper
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Job objectives work best for two types of job seekers:

* Those who know exactly what job they want, and
* Those whose career goal isn't obvious on their resumes.

If you include an objective, place it directly under your name and contact information. An objective typically begins with "to." For example, "Objective: To obtain a position ... "

Your objective should be simple, specific and brief -- no more than two or three lines. It should highlight what you have to offer the company, such as a specific skill or experience. A recruiter is more interested in what you can give the company than what you hope to get from it.

Here's an example of an effective job objective:

Objective: To obtain an entry-level account management position in financial services utilizing my strong analytical and interpersonal skills.

Review your objective each time you send a resume and make sure it fits the job you're applying for. Just as you should have several versions of your resume, you should also have several versions of your job objective.

Summarizing Your Skills

Not 100 percent sure what job you want? Then you may find a summary statement more effective than an objective.

While an objective focuses on the job, a summary statement focuses on the job seeker.

A summary statement is a one- to two-sentence overview that captures the essence of your skills and experience. It highlights what makes you a qualified candidate as well as what makes you different (and better) than other applicants.

Tailor your summary statement to highlight the experience that is most relevant to the job.

Here's an example of a strong summary statement.

Summary: Public relations professional with five years of experience managing PR campaigns across multiple media, working with national and local press and coordinating large-scale events.

Highlighting Your Achievements

Sometimes a job objective is too targeted. And sometimes a summary statement is too short to highlight all your accomplishments.

If that's the case, you have another option: A summary of qualifications.

A summary of qualifications is similar to a summary statement, but differs in two key ways:

1. It's formatted as a list of items rather than a single statement, and


2. It highlights specific accomplishments rather than general achievements.

It's most useful for job seekers who have a long work history or who are applying for senior positions. It's an effective way to highlight the most important, relevant parts of a long, detailed resume.

This section goes by many names, like "Key Accomplishments" and "Career Highlights." It's placed just where a job objective or summary statement is, under your contact information.

A summary of qualifications is a list of your most significant career accomplishments. For maximum effectiveness, the list should include no more than five items and be results-oriented.

The summary of qualifications is usually a list of short phrases. You can use a bulleted list, with each qualification on its own line. Or, to conserve space, you can arrange them in paragraph format, with a period after each one.

Here's an example of an effective summary of qualifications.

Summary of Qualifications

o Skilled pharmaceutical sales manager/executive with nine years sales experience and advanced degree in biology.
o Consistently surpassed annual revenue goals by 35 percent-plus.
o Named 2001 "Salesperson on the Year." Managed regional sales staff of 175.

Job objectives, summary statements, summaries of qualifications -- all are useful resume options. Your best choice will depend on your experience and the type of job you're interested in.