VERBS

In English, a regular verb (EG: talk) has only two forms in the present tense; talk and talks Singular Plural 1st person I talk we / you and I talk 2nd person you (singular) talk you (plural) talk 3rd person he, she, John, Lisa, the boy talks they / John and Mary / the girls talk Only the verb to be has more than two forms in the present tense (am, is, are). In the past tense, it is the only verb with more than one form (was, were). All other English verbs, regular and irregular, use just one form (talked, read, saw, etc.) for all persons. In the future tense, English verbs show no subject-verb agreement whatsoever: I, you, he, we, they will do, speak, go, etc. Auxiliary verbs Auxiliary verbs are small verbs used to build verb chains. Kate is speaking. We had been asking. She did like him once. The auxiliary verbs are: have when followed by a past participle: e.g. have seen be when followed by a present participle or by a past participle: are working are admired do when followed by an infinitive: do you think, do not think. the modal verbs, which are generally followed by an infinitive: will think, must be Modal verbs Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that come in front of an infinitive (usually without to). They express such ideas as possibility, willingness, prediction, speculation, deduction, necessity and habit. He must be angry I can’t understand. You ought to tell us. Here are the main modal verbs: will/would may/might dare shall/should must need can/could ought used to Why be is always an auxiliary verb and possessive have sometimes is. One of the main differences between auxiliary and main verbs is that auxiliaries are used in questions like Are you listening? and in negative sentences like You aren't listening. If we apply this as a test for auxiliary verbs, then other uses of be should also count as auxiliaries: They are happy. Are they happy? They aren't happy. He is your friend. Is he your friend? He isn't your friend. It was here. Was it here? It wasn't here. The same applies, for some people, to the verb have which means 'possess': She has enough money. Has she enough money? She hasn't enough money. Verb forms The main verb forms (with examples from a regular verb) are these: present tense we walk she walks FINITE past tense I walked imperative Walk this way NON-FINITE present participle I was walking past participle they have walked infinitive they can walk they like to walk Sometimes the word itself is the same – for example, walk can be present, infinive or imperative. But it’s important to be able to identify the different forms in use. These six forms belong to two major groups, which play an important part in English grammar: The present, past and imperative forms are finite. The participles and the infinitive are non-finite. Finite and non-finite verbs If an ordinary sentence contains just one verb, this verb will be finite. (Why 'finite'?) This is [finite] a finite verb. In a verb chain, the first verb in the chain is almost always finite, and the other verbs are always non-finite. They have [finite] looked [non-finite] at it The finite verb in a clause defines the way the clause works. It gives key information about: who is doing the thing - i.e. the subject: e.g. They have ... but: She has ... and when it is being done - i.e. the tense: e.g. They have ... but: They had ... Non-finite verbs are not restricted in these ways, though they are restricted in other ways. For example, the infinitive have can be used for any time and any subject: He seems to have a cold. (present time, singular subject) They seemed to have colds. (past time, plural subject)

OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS

Cases where Prepositions are omitted We do not normally use prepositions of time (on, in, at etc) before words like last, next or this. I met him last Sunday. (NOT I met him on last Sunday.) I met him on Sunday. We may discuss it next time. (NOT We may discuss it at next time.) The use of preposition is optional in the following sentences. I was here (in) the December before last. The visited us (on) the day before yesterday. She came here (in) the previous summer. We waited there (for) two hours. Different prepositions Some words which have slightly different form and meaning take different prepositions after them. Examples are: desire for but desirous of; confidence in but confident of I have no desire for name or fame. She is desirous of finding a job. I have no confidence in his ability to perform the task. I am confident of success in the examination. More examples are given below: According to but in accordance with; Sensible of but insensible to; Affection for but affectionate to; Ambition for but ambitious of; Fond of but fondness for; Neglectful of; not negligent in; Dislike to not liking for; The prepositions at / on / in are not normally used in expressions of time beginning with next, last, this, that, one, any, each, every, some and all. See you next week. (NOT See you in the next week.) I am free this evening. (NOT I am free in this evening.) You can come any time. (NOT You can come at any time.) I worked all day. (NOT I worked on all day.) Let’s meet one day. (NOT Let’s meet on one day.) These prepositions are not used before yesterday, the day before yesterday, tomorrow or the day after tomorrow. She is coming tomorrow. (NOT She is coming on tomorrow.) I met him yesterday. (NOT I met him on yesterday.) Also note that prepositions are dropped in questions beginning with what / which + expression of time. What time is she arriving? (NOT At what time is she arriving?) What day is the conference? (NOT On what day is the conference?) She grew up —————– Canada. (in/on) 2. It is very hot ——————- the center of the earth. (in/at) 3. Turn right ——————– the next corner. (in/at) 4. Let’s meet ——————— the club. (at/on) 5. She works —————– Life Insurance Corporation of India. (in/at) 6. He is a student —————— Oxford. (in/at) 7. London is ———————- the river Thames. (in/on) 8. There is a misprint ——————– line 9 on page 36. (on/in) 9. There is a big spider ———————– the ceiling. (in/on) 10. She is arriving —————— the 4.15th train. (in/on) 11. Are you still ——————– the same address? (at/on) 12. They live in a flat ——————– the fifth floor. (in/on) Answers 1. In, 2. At, 3. At, 4. At, 5. At, 6. At, 7. On, 8. In, 9. On, 10. On, 11. At, 12. On

PREPOSITIONS

Prepositions – Time English Usage Example on ------------days of the week ex.on Monday in ----------- months / seasons time of day year after a certain period of time (when?) in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour at----------- for night, for weekend a certain point of time (when?) at night at the weekend at half past nine since ----------- from a certain point of time (past till now) since 1980 for ----------- over a certain period of time (past till now) for 2 years ago----------- a certain time in the past 2 years ago before----------- earlier than a certain point of time before 2004 to ----------- telling the time ten to six (5:50) past----------- telling the time ten past six (6:10) to / till / until ----------- marking the beginning and end of a period of time from Monday to/till Friday till / until in the sense of how long something is going to last He is on holiday until Friday. by----------- in the sense of at the latest , up to a certain time I will be back by 6 o’clock. By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages. Prepositions – Place (Position and Direction) English Usage Example in ----------- room, building, street, town, country,book, paper etc. car, taxi picture, world in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world at----------- meaning next to, by an object, for table,for events, place where you are to do something typical (watch a film, study, work) at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work on----------- attached for a place with a river being on a surface, for a certain side (left, right), for a floor in a house,for public transport,for television, radio,the picture on the wall,London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio by, next to, beside----------- left or right of somebody or something Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car. under----------- on the ground, lower than (or covered by) something else the bag is under the table below----------- lower than something else but above ground the fish are below the surface over-----------covered by something else, meaning more than,getting to the other side (also across)overcoming an obstacle put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall above-----------higher than something else, but not directly over it a path above the lake across-----------getting to the other side (also over) getting to the other side walk across the bridge swim across the lake through----------- something with limits on top, bottom and the sides drive through the tunnel to-----------movement to person or building,movement to a place or country,for bed go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed into-----------enter a room / a building go into the kitchen / the house towards-----------movement in the direction of something (but not directly to it) go 5 steps towards the house onto-----------movement to the top of something jump onto the table from-----------in the sense of where from a flower from the garden Other important Prepositions English Usage Example from-----------who gave it a present from Jane of-----------who/what does it belong to, what does it show a page of the book the picture of a palace by-----------who made it a book by Mark Twain on-----------walking or riding on horseback,entering a public transport vehicle on foot, on horseback get on the bus in-----------entering a car / Taxi get in the car off-----------leaving a public transport vehicle get off the train out of-----------leaving a car / Taxi get out of the taxi by-----------rise or fall of something,travelling (other than walking or horseriding) prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus at-----------for age she learned Russian at 45 about-----------for topics, meaning what about we were talking about you

OMISSION OF ARTICLES Cases where articles should not be used With uncountable nouns Articles are not used with uncountable nouns when we make general statements. I love coffee. (NOT... a coffee OR the coffee) Milk is rich in nutrients. (NOT The milk OR a milk) We can't do without water. (NOT The water OR a water) She likes reading books. (NOT...the reading books OR a reading books) With the names of countries We do not use articles with the names of countries. Japan is a developed nation. (NOT The Japan) I have been to England. (NOT...to the England) Cases where articles should not be used With uncountable nouns Articles are not used with uncountable nouns when we make general statements. I love coffee. (NOT... a coffee OR the coffee) Milk is rich in nutrients. (NOT The milk OR a milk) We can't do without water. (NOT The water OR a water) She likes reading books. (NOT...the reading books OR a reading books) With the names of countries We do not use articles with the names of countries. Japan is a developed nation. (NOT The Japan) I have been to England. (NOT...to the England) India is a secular republic. (NOT The India) He has just returned from South Africa. (NOT …the South Africa) But we use 'the' if the name of the country or organization specifically states that it is a collection of states. (For example, The United States, The United Arab Emirates, The United Nations etc.) He is leaving for the United States tomorrow. The United Nations is an international organization of countries created to promote world peace and cooperation. With the names of languages We do not use articles with the names of languages. Hindi is the national language of India. It is not easy to learn French. English is spoken in many parts of the world. With the names of meals We do not use articles with the names of meals. We have lunch at midday. (NOT...the lunch) We have dinner in the evening. (NOT...the dinner) Breakfast is the first meal of the day. (NOT...the breakfast) With proper nouns We do not use articles with proper nouns (the names of people, places etc.) Alice is an architect. (NOT The Alice or a Alice) Mary is my friend. (NOT The Mary) Delhi is the capital of India. But we use 'the' with plural names. We are having dinner with the Smiths. The Sharmas are very kind. With titles and names We do not use articles with titles and names. Princess Diana was killed in a car accident. President Kennedy was assassinated. But we say, the queen of England, the President of USA With years We do not use articles before years. India won freedom in 1947. (NOT...in the 1947) I was born in 1979. With possessives and demonstratives We do not use articles before possessives (my, your, their etc.) and demonstratives (this, that, these, those). This is my book. (NOT This is a my book.) I like this car. (NOT I like the this car.) With days Articles are not used to talk about the coming or last day/month. See you on Friday. (=Coming Friday) We are leaving for the US next week. (NOT …the next week.) But we use articles with the names of days of the week and months if we are talking about particular days or months. We met on a rainy Friday. It was a wet Monday in May. She died on the Thursday after the accident. The articles are not used: 1. Before proper, material and abstract nouns used in a general sense: London, France, Tom, gold, rice, honesty, virtue Paris is the capital of France. (NOT The Paris is …) Gold is a precious metal. (NOT The gold is a …) Honesty is the best policy. But we say, the United States, the United Arab Emirates etc. 2. Before a common noun used in its commonest sense: Man is mortal. Iron is a useful metal. 3. In certain phrases made up of a preposition + noun: Examples are: on foot, at school, from top to bottom, at home, in bed, by train, by car, in debt, in hand, on earth, at noon, on board, in jest, at best, at worst etc. He is in debt. (NOT He is in the debt.) He is at school. (NOT He is at the school.) He spent the whole day in bed. 4. In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb and its object: Give ear, set sail, take heart, send word, catch fire, take offence, leave office, leave home, leave office etc. He took offence at my words. (BUT NOT He took the offence at my words.) She left home in the morning. (BUT NOT She left the home in the morning.) 5. Before the names of continents, countries, capes, cities, towns, days, months, arts, languages, sciences, some diseases etc. January, March, physics, English, Tokyo, Beijing, Delhi, Tuesday, Friday, Asia, America etc. December is a cold month. English is spoken all over the world. 6. Before common nouns when they go in pairs: Both husband and wife received serious injuries. 7. Before plural nouns used to denote a class: Apples are red. Camels are useful animals. Warm clothes are necessary in cold climates. 8. Before the nouns following kind of: What kind of flower is it? (NOT What kind of a flower is it?) 9. Before meal-time He was at dinner. Breakfast was served at night. (BUT NOT The breakfast was served at night.) Some special points Compare the pairs of sentences given below: I have a black and white cow. (Only one cow) I have a black and a white cow. (Two cows) The secretary and accountant is present. (Here the nouns secretary and accountant refer to the same person.) The secretary and the accountant were present. (Here the repetition of the articles implies that the secretary and the accountant are different persons.) Articles are not used: 1. before the name of a person: Example: I am a fan of Michael Jackson. (NOT: I am a fan of the Michael Jackson) 2. before the name of a place, town, country, street, or road. Example: Barcelona is a beautiful city. (NOT: The Barcelona is a beautiful city.) 3. before names of materials. Example: Gold is found in Australia. (NOT: The gold is found in Australia.) 4. before abstract nouns used in a general sense. Example: You cannot buy happiness. 4. Difference in Meaning with Use of Articles It helps to observe the following rules: When we use two or more adjectives to describe the same person or thing, we use the article only before the first adjective. EXAMPLE: He talked to a tall and blonde woman. (He talked to a (one) woman who was tall and blonde.) When we use two or more adjectives to refer to more than one person or thing, we use the article before each adjective India is a secular republic. (NOT The India) He has just returned from South Africa. (NOT …the South Africa) But we use 'the' if the name of the country or organization specifically states that it is a collection of states. (For example, The United States, The United Arab Emirates, The United Nations etc.) He is leaving for the United States tomorrow. The United Nations is an international organization of countries created to promote world peace and cooperation. With the names of languages We do not use articles with the names of languages. Hindi is the national language of India. It is not easy to learn French. English is spoken in many parts of the world. With the names of meals We do not use articles with the names of meals. We have lunch at midday. (NOT...the lunch) We have dinner in the evening. (NOT...the dinner) Breakfast is the first meal of the day. (NOT...the breakfast) With proper nouns We do not use articles with proper nouns (the names of people, places etc.) Alice is an architect. (NOT The Alice or a Alice) Mary is my friend. (NOT The Mary) Delhi is the capital of India. But we use 'the' with plural names. We are having dinner with the Smiths. The Sharmas are very kind. With titles and names We do not use articles with titles and names. Princess Diana was killed in a car accident. President Kennedy was assassinated. But we say, the queen of England, the President of USA With years We do not use articles before years. India won freedom in 1947. (NOT...in the 1947) I was born in 1979. With possessives and demonstratives We do not use articles before possessives (my, your, their etc.) and demonstratives (this, that, these, those). This is my book. (NOT This is a my book.) I like this car. (NOT I like the this car.) With days Articles are not used to talk about the coming or last day/month. See you on Friday. (=Coming Friday) We are leaving for the US next week. (NOT …the next week.) But we use articles with the names of days of the week and months if we are talking about particular days or months. We met on a rainy Friday. It was a wet Monday in May. She died on the Thursday after the accident. The articles are not used: 1. Before proper, material and abstract nouns used in a general sense: London, France, Tom, gold, rice, honesty, virtue Paris is the capital of France. (NOT The Paris is …) Gold is a precious metal. (NOT The gold is a …) Honesty is the best policy. But we say, the United States, the United Arab Emirates etc. 2. Before a common noun used in its commonest sense: Man is mortal. Iron is a useful metal. 3. In certain phrases made up of a preposition + noun: Examples are: on foot, at school, from top to bottom, at home, in bed, by train, by car, in debt, in hand, on earth, at noon, on board, in jest, at best, at worst etc. He is in debt. (NOT He is in the debt.) He is at school. (NOT He is at the school.) He spent the whole day in bed. 4. In certain phrases consisting of a transitive verb and its object: Give ear, set sail, take heart, send word, catch fire, take offence, leave office, leave home, leave office etc. He took offence at my words. (BUT NOT He took the offence at my words.) She left home in the morning. (BUT NOT She left the home in the morning.) 5. Before the names of continents, countries, capes, cities, towns, days, months, arts, languages, sciences, some diseases etc. January, March, physics, English, Tokyo, Beijing, Delhi, Tuesday, Friday, Asia, America etc. December is a cold month. English is spoken all over the world. 6. Before common nouns when they go in pairs: Both husband and wife received serious injuries. 7. Before plural nouns used to denote a class: Apples are red. Camels are useful animals. Warm clothes are necessary in cold climates. 8. Before the nouns following kind of: What kind of flower is it? (NOT What kind of a flower is it?) 9. Before meal-time He was at dinner. Breakfast was served at night. (BUT NOT The breakfast was served at night.) Some special points Compare the pairs of sentences given below: I have a black and white cow. (Only one cow) I have a black and a white cow. (Two cows) The secretary and accountant is present. (Here the nouns secretary and accountant refer to the same person.) The secretary and the accountant were present. (Here the repetition of the articles implies that the secretary and the accountant are different persons.) Articles are not used: 1. before the name of a person: Example: I am a fan of Michael Jackson. (NOT: I am a fan of the Michael Jackson) 2. before the name of a place, town, country, street, or road. Example: Barcelona is a beautiful city. (NOT: The Barcelona is a beautiful city.) 3. before names of materials. Example: Gold is found in Australia. (NOT: The gold is found in Australia.) 4. before abstract nouns used in a general sense. Example: You cannot buy happiness. 4. Difference in Meaning with Use of Articles It helps to observe the following rules: When we use two or more adjectives to describe the same person or thing, we use the article only before the first adjective. EXAMPLE: He talked to a tall and blonde woman. (He talked to a (one) woman who was tall and blonde.) When we use two or more adjectives to refer to more than one person or thing, we use the article before each adjective.

USES OF ARTICLES

USES OF ARTICLES In English, knowing when to use 'a' or 'the' can be difficult. Fortunately, there are rules to help you, but you need to know what type of noun you are using. Grammar rule 1 When you have a single, countable English noun, you must always have an article before it. We cannot say "please pass me pen", we must say "please pass me the pen" or "please pass me a pen" or "please pass me your pen". Nouns in English can also be uncountable. Uncountable nouns can be concepts, such as 'life', 'happiness' and so on, or materials and substances, such as 'coffee', or 'wood'. Grammar rule 2 Uncountable nouns don't use 'a' or 'an'. This is because you can't count them. For example, advice is an uncountable noun. You can't say "he gave me an advice", but you can say "he gave me some advice", or "he gave me a piece of advice". Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable. For example, we say "coffee" meaning the product, but we say "a coffee" when asking for one cup of coffee. Grammar rule 3 You can use 'the' to make general things specific. You can use 'the' with any type of noun – plural or singular, countable or uncountable. "Please pass me a pen" – any pen. "Please pass me the pen" – the one that we can both see. "Children grow up quickly" – children in general. "The children I know grow up quickly" – not all children, just the ones I know. "Poetry can be beautiful"- poetry in general. "The poetry of Hopkins is beautiful" – I'm only talking about the poetry Hopkins wrote. More uses of articles in English Rivers, mountain ranges, seas, oceans and geographic areas all use 'the'. For example, "The Thames", "The Alps", "The Atlantic Ocean", "The Middle East". Unique things have 'the'. For example, "the sun", "the moon". Some institutional buildings don't have an article if you visit them for the reason these buildings exist. But if you go to the building for another reason, you must use 'the'. "Her husband is in prison." (He's a prisoner.) "She goes to the prison to see him once a month." "My son is in school." (He's a student.) "I'm going to the school to see the head master." "She's in hospital at the moment." (She's ill.) "Her husband goes to the hospital to see her every afternoon." Musical instruments use 'the'. "She plays the piano." Sports don't have an article. "He plays football." Illnesses don't have an article. "He's got appendicitis." But we say "a cold" and "a headache". Jobs use 'a'. "I'm a teacher." Countries We don't use 'a' if the country is singular. "He lives in England." But if the country's name has a "plural" meaning, we use 'the'. "The People's Republic of China", "The Netherlands", "The United States of America". Continents, towns and streets don't have an article. "Africa", "New York", "Church Street". Theatres, cinemas and hotels have 'the'. "The Odeon", "The Almeira", "The Hilton". Abbreviations use 'the'. "the UN", "the USA", "the IMF". We use 'the' before classes of people. "the rich", "the poor", "the British".

ARTICLES

ARTICLES Here are the rules for when to use "A, An or The": a = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with consonants She has a dog. I work in a factory. an = indefinite article (not a specific object, one of a number of the same objects) with vowels (a,e,i,o,u) Can I have an apple? She is an English teacher. the = definite article (a specific object that both the person speaking and the listener know) The car over there is fast. The teacher is very good, isn't he? The first time you speak of something use "a or an", the next time you repeat that object use "the". I live in a house. The house is quite old and has four bedrooms. I ate in a Chinese restaurant. The restaurant was very good. DO NOT use an article with countries, states, counties or provinces, lakes and mountains except when the country is a collection of states such as "The United States". He lives in Washington near Mount Rainier. They live in northern British Columbia. Use an article with bodies of water, oceans and seas - My country borders on the Pacific Ocean DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about things in general I like Russian tea. She likes reading books. DO NOT use an article when you are speaking about meals, places, and transport He has breakfast at home. I go to university. He comes to work by taxi.

Problem-solving Skill

Problem-solving Skill Problem-solving skill is beginning to be considered as a strategic tool nowadays. Industries are spending a lot of time and money to promote the managerial skills, technical skills and interpersonal skills of their employees. Problem-solving is one of the Problem-solving requires a range of critical thinking skills from identification,description and analysis to synthesis and evaluation. It also requires understanding of the theoretical principles and governing frameworks behind classification of the problem and application of the solution method. The students need to understand and be able to explain what it is that you are doing as you proceed to solve the problems. The common stages of problem solving are: • Identification • Classification • Transformation • Substitution and • Comparison Problem-solving exam questions are favoured in a range of disciplines from physics, engineering and mathematics to architecture, law and linguistics (Exam. Wing, University of Melbourne). In problem-solving questions the students may be asked to propose and justify a course of action to address a specified situation, or to develop a reasoned explanation based on data analysis.